All posts by traderscreek

Poison Ivy – Toxicodendron radicans

January 10, 2014 traderscreek

Poison Ivy

General:

Poison ivy is a common North American plant that produces urushiol, a clear liquid compound found within the sap of the plant that causes an itching rash in most people who touch it. The fluids released by scratching the blisters do not spread the poison or the rash. The fluid in the blisters is produced by the body and it is not by urushiol.

Poison ivy likes to grow in suburban areas and many people I know have unwittingly cleaned out “weeds” along neighboring fences only to wake up the next day with the signature itchy rash.

Description:

Poison ivy can be found growing in any of the following three forms

Trailing vine that is 4 to 10 inches high

Shrub up to 4 feet tall

A climbing vine that grows on trees or some other support. Older vines on substantial supports send out lateral branches that may at first be mistaken for tree limbs.

Poison ivy leaves are deciduous and typical form in clusters 3 on their own stem that are almond-shaped. The leaves grow alternately on the main stem. The leaves are not very large – approximately 1 ½” – 5” long. Like other plants that are deciduous, the leaves of poison ivy change color with age and season starting out often times red in spring then to green then red, orange, or yellow in the fall. The stems are smooth – this easily distinguishes poison ivy from blackberry vines. The leaves as shown by the picture can have slight serrated edges and as the leaf matures can be shiny.

Vines growing on the trunk of a tree become firmly attached through numerous aerial rootlets. One problem here is that poison ivy grows in the same areas as Virginia creeper, so care must be exercised because you will not be able to clearly identify poison ivy in this situation. Poison ivy vines can have a “hairy” appearance, which can help in identification.
Poison ivy flowers from May to July. The flowers are yellowish- or greenish-white located in clusters approximately 3” above the leaves. The berries mature by August to November and are grayish-white in color.

Location:

Poison ivy grows throughout much of North America, including eastern Canada in Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba, and all U.S. states east of the Rockies, as well as in areas of Mexico. So the lesson here is that you can expect it just about anywhere. When out and about hiking or camping you will likely find poison ivy in wooded areas, much of the time in open areas that receive sun. It also grows in exposed rocky areas and in open fields.

Poison:

Urushiol binds to the skin on contact, where it causes severe itching that often develops into a red rash or flesh colored bumps and blistering. The rash can be treated with Calamine lotion or other over the counter remedies such as oatmeal baths and baking soda. In severe cases hospitalization may be required or if the plant has been ingested.
Urushiol oil can remain active for several years, so handling dead leaves or vines can cause a reaction. In addition, oil transferred from the plant to other objects (such as pet fur) can cause the rash if it comes into contact with the skin.

Poison Plants

Pacific Poison Oak – Toxicodendron diversilobum

January 9, 2014 traderscreek

Pacific Poison Oak

General:

Pacific poison-oak, a member of the sumac family, is a deciduous plant that grows throughout many parts of west coast. Urushiol, found on the stems, berries and leaves is the main component of the oily resin that causes rashes and blistering. Poison oak can survive under a wide range of temperatures, elevations, soil types, moisture conditions,

Description:

Western poison oak is variable in plant growth and leaf appearance. It can grow as a dense shrub, a tree with a 3” – 8” trunk or as a climbing vine.
When Pacific poison-oak grows as a shrub, it can reach up to 13 feet tall. When poison oak grows as a vine or tree, stems can reach up to 82 feet long. Twigs can be hairless to sparsely hairy and gray to reddish brown.

Leaves, generally resembling the leaves of a true oak, consist of three, and sometimes up to five leaflets but three leaflet leaves are most common. Leaf edges can be smooth, wavy, or have slightly rounded lobes. The upper leaf surface is hairless, or nearly so, and usually slightly glossy. The lower surface usually has sparse, short hairs. Leaves turn bright red in the autumn.

White flowers form in the spring in leaf axils, where the leaf meets or connects to the stalk, and white or tan berries usually form later in the summer

Without leaves, poison oak stems may sometimes be identified by occasional black marks where its milky sap may have oozed and dried.
Location: as the map indicates, western poison oak is found only on the Pacific Coast of the United States and of Canada. southern Canada to the Baja California peninsula.

Poison:

Urushiol binds to the skin on contact, where it causes severe itching that often develops into a red rash or flesh colored bumps and blistering. Symptoms generally appear 12 to 48 hours later. The rash can be treated with Calamine lotion or other over the counter remedies such as oatmeal baths and baking soda. In severe cases hospitalization may be required or if the plant has been ingested.

Urushiol oil can remain active for several years, so handling dead leaves or vines can cause a reaction. In addition, oil transferred from the plant to other objects (such as pet fur) can cause the rash if it comes into contact with the skin.
Severe respiratory irritation can be induced by breathing the smoke from burning plant material. Repeated exposure often results in increased sensitivity.

Edible Plants, Survival Guide

Blueberry Plant Identification Information

January 3, 2014 traderscreek

Blueberry

Common Names:

Northern highbush blueberry, southeastern highbush blueberry, Maryland highbush blueberry, black highbush blueberry, American blueberry, New Jersey blueberry, rabbiteye blueberry, swamp blueberry, tall huckleberry, mayberry, whortleberry

Other than eating blueberry muffins and pancakes, I never thought much of the plant. My guess was that blueberries were farm plants and that was it. Then in my early twenties I was trout fishing in Quebec just north of Alma. We were fishing small lakes loaded with native brook trout. I walked down to the first lake and was met with about 2 acres of blueberry plants with ripe fruit. I asked my brother-in-law how they “got there”. Right then I learned a lesson – blueberry plants, in this case high bush blueberry are native plants to North America. That week I dined on brook trout and blueberries each evening and blueberry pancakes with bacon each morning – a great way to live.

Identification:

Blueberry bushes can be small to large shrub like plants. Highbush blueberry plants can grow over 6′ tall with a similar spread. Twigs are yellow-green (reddish in winter) and covered with small wart-like dots. Leaves are deciduous, alternate, simple, elliptic or ovate, 1 to 3½ inches long and slightly waxy above. As the pictures indicate, the leaves are usually a good healthy green. In fall the leaves can turn a vibrant red.
The white or pink-tinged flowers are small and urn-shaped with 5 petals, and occur 8 to 10 per cluster. Flowering occurs February to June, sporadically in the southern portion of its range; fruiting occurs April to October, about 62 days after flowering. Fruits are ¼ – ½” blue-black berries with many seeds.
Habitat: The most common native habitat is in moist or wet peat of moderate to high acidity – in and around marshes, swamps, lakes and flood-prone areas. There are varieties that also grow in drier areas such as dunes and barrier beaches, rocky hillsides, oak woods, and pinewoods.

Location:

With the exception of deserts etc. some form of blueberry can be found somewhere in North America as long as the habitat is favorable. Additionally, because of people using the plants for home, garden or farm the various species have become transplanted wide and far. Birds eating the fruit then disperse the seeds for more plants. The gist here is that it is possible to locate blueberry plants if you look.

Edible:

The berry is the edible part of this plant. Blueberries can be eaten raw, smoke-dried, sun-dried, boiled, and baked in a wide variety of culinary ways. They have one of the highest concentrations of iron of the temperate fruits. Additionally, blueberries are high in anti-oxidants.

Check out our blueberry recipes

Notes of interest:

Blueberries provide important summer and early fall food for numerous species of game birds, songbirds, and mammals – my fight with local animals is a testament to this fact!!
More than 50 blueberry varieties have been developed, primarily for commercially valuable fruit characteristics and seasonality.

Blueberry Growing Guide:

Blueberries combine delicious healthy fruit and ornamental value to the garden. This native plant is easy to grow and requires little care. If a few basic steps are followed your blueberry plants can last for years.
In order for bushes to grow properly, have fruit set and mature and have the plants flourish, you will want to provide as much sunlight as possible. My plants currently have a good 10 hours of sunlight from spring into fall.
These native plants do best in slightly acidic soil, somewhere between a pH of 5.5 and 6.5. When you plant blueberries, make sure you add plenty of peat moss. It will provide a great pH level to start as well as setting a good lose soil for the roots to spread. A periodic feeding regime with an acidic fertilizer such as Mir-Acid is good. I do not believe Mir-acid lowers soil pH but my blueberries do well. If after testing your soil pH it is still too high try sulphur, ammonium sulfate or iron sulfate.

Blueberries do best with a 2-4″ mulch over the roots to conserve moisture, prevent weeds and add organic matter. Bark mulch, acid compost, sawdust, grass clippings, etc. all work well. Repeat every other year.

Do not plant blueberry bushes in wet areas of your property or in clay based soils that will hold water and slow drainage. Blueberries need adequate water, especially when the fruit is maturing you will need to make sure there is plenty of water, if not the fruit will shrivel on the plant. This is what happened to my crop in 2012 when the U.S. experienced drought conditions

Blueberries are like many other fruiting plants, in most cases a single plant will not “self-pollinate”. Most, if not all good gardening guides will tell you to plant two different varieties for proper pollination.

For proper growth, plant blueberries 4-5 feet apart.

My big fight of the year is when the fruit begins to ripen. Maturing blueberries attract birds and squirrels from all over. The only way I know of keeping the fruit is to cover with fine-meshed deer netting. I tack the ends down to the ground to keep animals from getting under the netting to feed. I have walked out too often to find a northern cardinal or gray squirrel trying to get out of the net. When winter sets in upstate New York, rabbits will eat the young branches of blueberry plants. In my area eastern cottontail rabbits are a pain. In a few days they can chew a young plant to the ground. I surround my blueberry plants with chicken wire. This protects the plants.

Blueberry Benefits

Heart health

In a study published in the International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, blueberry supplementation in mice with high cholesterol reduced their risk factors for atherosclerosis. Those who took the extract noted a 29 percent reduction in total cholesterol, with bad cholesterol dropping by 34 percent and good cholesterol rising by up to 40 percent, despite consuming a high-fat diet. In addition, triglycerides – a fat that turns normal cells into fat cells – and homocysteine – which causes inflammation in arterial walls – were both reduced by half.

Excellent references and information in growing blueberries:

Local County agents are listed in the phone book or can be looked up online, call up and ask questions

University of Maine – great article with video instructions

Atlee Burpee & Co – what I consider the best seed and plant company around (with a great history)

Birds

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird – Facts and Information

January 1, 2014 traderscreek

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird

General:

The Ruby-Throated Hummingbird (Archilochus colubris,) is one of my favorite backyard sightings, due to its brilliant plumage and spirited behavior. Before you can catch a glance, this acrobatic and energetic bird is usually on its way to the next blossom. This hummingbird has the greatest breeding range of all hummingbirds in North America and occupies much of the eastern United States and Canada during the spring and summer months. By providing the right vegetation and features in your backyard, you may be lucky enough to share your yard with this lovely species.

Description:

The Ruby-Throated Hummingbird is named for the metallic ruby-red throat patch found on the throat of the male hummin

gbirds. Both sexes have iridescent green plumage on their backs and heads and white undersides. This species of hummingbird has the lowest number of feathers ever found on any bird1. Females may be distinguished from males by their dull gray throats. The tails also differ between sexes, with forked tails

present on males and white-tipped square tails on females. Young Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are similar in appearance to adults, except for fewer red feathers on the throats of adolescent males.

Adult hummingbirds reach 3” to 4” in size, averaging 3.5 grams in weight2. Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds have long bills and tongues, used to drink nectar at an average of 13 licks a second. The tongues are grooved to aid in nectar collection and have fringed edges to help collect insects. This acrobatic flyer has short legs relative to their body length, making walking and hopping difficult and inefficient. Possibly the most unique physical attributes of the Ruby-Throated Hummingbird, besides for the red plumage on the males, are the wings. These tiny and delicate appendages are able to beat an average of 53 times per second, creating this bird’s distinctive “humming” noise. During flight the number of beats per second may be 78 times a

second and as high as 200 times a second during a dive (a display used in mating)3. Because of these extreme levels of activity and the tendency to ‘hover’ while eating, Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds have very high metabolic rates. The metabolic rate of these birds at rest is estimated to be 20.6 calories per gram per hour. In addition to their signature hovering, these petite birds are able to fly upside-down and backward.

On average, adult male hummingbirds live to 5 years of age and females live to 9 years in the wild. This species experiences a high mortality rate possibly because of the extreme energy demands of behaviors including breeding displays, migration, and defense of territory, leading to extensive weight loss4.

Ruby-Throated Hummingbird is a solitary species and typically only interact for breeding or territorial purposes. Male hummingbirds are territorial, using vocalizations to ward off intruders. If an intruder enters another male’s territory, the defending male will make a single note, repeating at higher and higher volumes until the intruder retreats. If the vocal warning is not successful, male hummingbirds are known to chase and physically attract other males (using their beaks and feet.)5 In addition to vocalizations, male and female Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds may communicate with and understand olfactory and visual cues. These birds can see the visible light spectrum as well as the blue-violet range. Developed vision along with their sense of smell helps these hummingbirds identify food sources.

Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are diurnal, most active during the day. When temperatures drop below optimal levels, hummingbirds enter hypothermic torpor in order to conserve energy. Hypothermic torpor is a state similar to hibernation, allowing a hummingbird to conserve energy through a lowered body temperature and slowed body functions6.
Populations of Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are wide spread and numerous, with an estimated 7.3 million birds worldwide. This species has never experienced any serious threats and is protected under the Migratory Bird Treaty between the U.S. and Canada. As with all hummingbird species, the Ruby-Throated Hummingbird is part of Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species7.

Habitat:

Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds fulfill an important role in their habitats, pollinating flowers, shrubs and vines. This symbiotic relationship is so strong that some species of plants have adapted to cater specifically to these small birds. Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are migratory, inhabiting northern habitats during their summer breeding season and tropical habitats after migrating south for the winter. Preferred habitats include deciduous and pine forests, mixed woodlands, orchards, flowering gardens, parks, overgrown pastures, and citrus groves. The Ruby-Throated Hummingbird selects habitats that are close in proximity to water sources such as marshes or streams, to ensure abundant insect supplies8.

Males establish territories that offer food supplies, protection and mating opportunities. Some males have been known to establish a breeding territory distinct from their primary territory when food sources in the primary territory were not sufficient to support mating activities. These separate areas may be as far as two miles apart. Males are defensive of their territories and typically locate their territory at least 50’ away from a territory of another male Ruby-Throated Hummingbird. Territories of Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds may overlap with those of other hummingbird species. In these instances, the male Ruby-Throated Hummingbird will become submissive9.

Within their habitats, Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are vulnerable to birds-of-prey (including blue jays which feed on nestlings) and, most often, house cats.

Location:

Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are a migratory species. Between February and May these petite birds fly north to their breeding grounds located across the eastern United States and Canada, east of the 100th meridian. Between July and October Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds embark on a southern migration to their winter grounds that extend from southern Florida south to Panama and the West Indies. This species primarily winters in Central America. Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are capable of a nonstop, 500-mile flight across the Gulf of Mexico and may go so far as to double their body weight in preparation. The migration of this species coordinates with the blooming schedules of flowers.

Diet:

Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds are omnivorous, feeding on flowers and nectar as well as insects. Adult hummingbirds require an immense amount of calories to support their behaviors and must consume approximately twice their body weight a day. They are most often spotted hovering over flowers as they lick the nectar, consuming approximately half their body weight in sugar a day, spread between five to eight feedings10. Preference has been shown for red flowers, but hummingbirds consume a variety of other flowers and nectar from wildflowers and flowers from shrubs and vines, as well as tree sap (collected from wells excavated by tree-boring bird species.) Insects are collected from sap wells and vegetation and include mosquitoes, small bees, gnats, small flies, aphids, spiders, caterpillars and insect eggs11.

If you are looking to attract hummingbirds to your garden, here is a variety of plantings you may consider:

Flowers:

Begonia, Century Plant, Butterfly Weed, Columbine, Delphinium, Fox Glove, Dahlia, Geranium, Impatients, Lilly, Petunia, Phlox, Snapdragons, Verbena, Sweet William

Vines, Trees, Shrubs:

Honeysuckle, Trumpet Vine, Morning Glory, Butterfly Bush, Rose of Sharon, rosemary, Tulip Poplar

Hanging a hummingbird feeder is also a great way to attract these beautiful birds. Fill your feeder with a concentrated sugar solution (roughly 4 parts sugar to 1 part water.) Boil the mixture until the sugar is fully dissolved. Remember to clean your feeder often, especially during extreme heat. The sugar solution should be changed every few days, especially during high temperatures because heat can cause this solution to spoil.
*Do not use artificial sweetener or honey in your feeder. Honey can ferment and cause hummingbirds to become sick and sweeteners contain no nutritional value13.

Reproduction:

Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds breed while in their northern habitats between March and July, the height of breeding occurring in mid-May. This species inhabits a larger breeding range than all other hummingbird species in North America and is the only species of hummingbird that breeds east of the Mississippi14.

Both male and female Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds take several breeding partners during a given season, although no long-term breeding pairs are established. After copulation pairs separate and females assume all parental duties.

Male Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds return to breeding areas in the spring to establish their territories prior to females’ arrivals. Upon entering a male’s territory, a female will be courted with an acrobatic display: a showy display of red throat plumage and diving displays with males flying in loops above the females. If a female shows interest by perching, the male will proceed by flying in fast horizontal arcs just feet in front of the female. Females may give their final consent by emitting a “mew” and displaying a posture of cocked tail feathers and lowered wings15.

Females are solely responsible for selecting the site for and building a nest. Nests are typically attached to a down-sloping branch by pine resin, below a shelter of leaves, 5’ to 20’ off the ground or a stream. Common trees to find hummingbird nests in are oak, maple, poplar, birch, beech, spruce and pine. Nests are constructed of thistle, ferns, young leaves, moss, dandelion and milkweed down, spider and caterpillar webs, and bud scales and decorated on the exterior with lichen (possibly to provide camouflage.)

Females lay, on average, 1 to 3 small white eggs. After two weeks of incubation, the young birds are born and will be fed by their mothers in the nest for approximately 3 weeks. The chicks leave the nest about 20 days after hatching and reach sexual maturity at 1 year of age. In a single breeding season a female may have several broods.

Notes of Interest:

While hummingbirds don’t require a source of water for drinking, providing a water feature in your garden may help attract these beautiful birds. Including a fountain, pond, birdbath, waterfall or mister in your garden may increase insect populations and make your space more attractive.

Ruby-Throated Hummingbirds were a prized specimen in the nineteenth century due to their beautiful plumage. Although these birds were commonly hunted and a coveted prize, this species never became threatened and numbers stayed strong and stable16.

Footnotes

1. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archilochus_colubris/
2. http://plants.usda.gov/pollinators/Ruby-throated_hummingbird.pdf
3. http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/wildlife/hummer.htm
4. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archilochus_colubris/
5. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archilochus_colubris/
6. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archilochus_colubris/
7. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archilochus_colubris/
8. http://plants.usda.gov/pollinators/Ruby-throated_hummingbird.pdf
9. http://plants.usda.gov/pollinators/Ruby-throated_hummingbird.pdf
10. http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/wildlife/hummer.htm
11. http://plants.usda.gov/pollinators/Ruby-throated_hummingbird.pdf
12. http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/wildlife/hummer.htm
13. http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/wildlife/hummer.htm
14. http://plants.usda.gov/pollinators/Ruby-throated_hummingbird.pdf
15. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archilochus_colubris/
16. http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archilochus_colubris/

http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/ruby-throat-hummingbird/
http://plants.usda.gov/pollinators/Ruby-throated_hummingbird.pdf
http://www.wvu.edu/~agexten/wildlife/hummer.htm
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Archiloch

Back to Birds page

Fish, Wildlife

Rainbow Trout – Oncorhynchus mykiss, facts

January 1, 2014 traderscreek

Rainbow Trout

General:

Members of the salmon family, Rainbow Trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, are an anadromous species, migrating up-river to spawn. They are native to cool, fresh water, thriving in habitats that do not exceed 70F. Their preference in habitat makes them indicative of clean, clear waters. Rainbow Trout are one of the most popular sporting fish and as a result, are commonly bred and introduced into non-native regions. Alternate names, associated with this species, include Redband Trout, Coastal Rainbow and Steelheads.

Description:

With an average lifespan in the wild of 4 to 6 years, Rainbow Trout may grow to an adult size of 20” to 30” and reach an average weight of 2 to 8 lbs. However, some Rainbow Trout have been known to grow as large as 48” and weigh up to 30 lbs. in freshwater and 40 lbs. or greater in saltwater1. The body of the Rainbow Trout, like the common Salmon, is torpedo shaped, featuring a squared, forked tail with 10 to 12 anal rays, and an adipose fin. Differences in geographic habitation can result in variations in coloration and increased concentrations in anal rays. Other physical variations may be brought on by season, such as the hooked jaw, or kype, seen on male fish during the spawning season2.
Coloration is determined by geography, age and reproductive activity. Typically, Rainbow Trout display a predominantly blue-green or yellow-green coloring, providing camouflage against river and lakebeds. However, Rainbow Trout may turn silver while they spend time in salt water. Distinguishing features include red/pink markings running lengthwise on the sides, a silvery-white underside, white mouth and gums, and black speckling across the fins and back.

Location:

Rainbow Trout are native to North America, found in waters west of the Rockies, spanning north to Alaska and south to Mexico. Geographic populations are commonly identified by distinct names. The term Redband typically refers to Rainbow Trout living east of the Cascade Mountains in the U.S. and in the Upper Fraser River of British Columbia. Steelheads are Rainbow Trout that migrate to the Pacific as juveniles, spending time in saltwater before returning to freshwater to spawn3.

Due to their popularity as a sport fish and their ability to thrive in hatcheries, the Rainbow trout has been introduced to streams, rivers and lakes one every continent except for Antarctica, gaining this species distinction as invasive in certain locations. In the United States, there are introduced populations in 47 states, extending from the Great Lakes region, to south central Canada to the Great Plains east of the Rockies, and southwestern Mexico4.

Habitat:

Rainbow Trout live in fresh, cool waters and require a temperature not exceeding 70 for survival. These freshwater bodies include headwaters, creeks, rivers, lakes, estuaries, and oceans. Preferred habitats are complex, including features that provide protection, feeding opportunities and habitat stabilization for the trout. This diverse ecosystem is comprised of submerged boulders and wood, overhanging vegetation, root masses, and beds of aquatic plants and clean gravel, interspersed between turbulent runs, slow-flowing pools, and deep water. Because trout are solitary in nature, these features also create barriers between habitats, allowing Rainbow Trout to establish territories within close proximity of other populations.

Adult Steelheads (‘sea-run rainbow trout,’) have been known to follow fresh water routes to the Pacific, spending up to several years in an oceanic habitat before returning to fresh water to spawn.

A large percentage of native Rainbow Trout habitats have been compromised or lost due to many factors, including soil erosion, loss of riparian vegetation (that found growing along banks,) logging, mining, pollution due to agricultural and municipal development, and dam and road construction. In addition to loss of habitats, these factors also damage migratory routes, hindering upstream migration during the spawning season. These factors have lead to a reduction of native Rainbow Trout populations, forcing nine populations of Steelheads to the federal endangered species list.

Diet:

Rainbow trout are opportunistic and migratory feeders5. Their carnivorous diets consist of aquatic and terrestrial items, including Insects, crustaceans, small fish, plankton, leeches, mollusks, and fish eggs. When food supplies are limited, Rainbow Trout have been known to travel long distances in search of new sources.

Reproduction:

Rainbow Trout typically spawn in the spring and early summer, seeking out stream riffles downstream from pools, lake inlet or outlet streams or main river channels and tributaries. During the spawning season Steelhead trout have been known to migrate from the ocean to the freshwater where they hatched, identifying them as an anadromous or migratory species. Female Rainbow Trout seek out moving water over clean, sediment-free gravel, ranging from ½” to 3” in diameter, to build their nests. The female will use her tail to dig a shallow pit, called a redd, depositing a portion of her eggs to be fertilized by a male. After the first nest has been fertilized and covered with gravel, the female will dig another redd upstream, varying the water depth and velocity of the location to increase the survival rate of the eggs. After fertilization, the eggs require consistent temperatures of around 55F and continuous oxygenation through the clean gravel and hatch within 21 days6. Young trout will remain in the gravel from which they hatched until yolk reserves are depleted, emerging to search for new food sources7.

Rainbow Trout that have been introduced to non-native environments have a diminished rate of reproduction due to improper temperatures, and spawning environments. Because of this, states, including Ohio and Texas, must continually restock trout in their freshwaters to provide fisherman with this species. The Ohio Division of Wildlife introduces young trout into Lake Erie tributaries, where they will live for 1 to 2 years before migrating to the lake. The adult trout will live in the lake for up to several years, if allusive to fisherman, before returning to the tributaries and heading upstream to attempt to spawn8.

Rainbow Trout Fishing: The Rainbow Trout’s history with fisherman has made it one of “the top five sport fishes in North America, and it is considered by many to be the most important game fish west of the Rocky Mountains” 9.

“To catch a rainbow trout, an angler needs to be aware of the fish’s behavior in different water conditions. In streams, rainbow trout tend to select areas with gravel or rocky bottom that have cover such as boulders, logs or deep water nearby. In ponds and lakes, rainbow trout tend to swim around looking for food, especially near cover such as a weed line.

A variety if techniques can be used to catch rainbow trout: bait, artificials and fly fishing. When bait fishing, size 6-10 baitholder hooks and 4-8 lb. test line are best to use to suspend the bait in the water or split shot can be used to keep the bait on the bottom. Baits commonly used are worms, minnows, corn, crickets, salmon eggs or commercially produced baits such as Berkley Power Bait.

Fishing with artificials is a technique that uses a non-food item to imitate a food item. Spinner and spoons 1/32-1/8 oz. are commonly used for trout. They are made of metal and imitate a baitfish. Artificials can either be cast out and retrieved or trolled. A piece of bait can be added to an artificial to enhance its attractiveness” 10.

Notes of Interest:

Symbol of: Washington State

The largest rainbow trout on record weighed 57 lbs (25.8 kg) and was estimated to be 11 years old11.

Footnotes

1. http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/rbt/
2. www.dnr.state.oh.us/LinkClick.aspx?link=6733&tabid=6518
3. http://www.fws.gov/northeast/wssnfh/pdfs/RAINBOW1.pdf
4. http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/rbt/
5. http://www.fws.gov/northeast/wssnfh/pdfs/RAINBOW1.pdf
6. http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/rbt/
7. www.dnr.state.oh.us/LinkClick.aspx?link=6733&tabid=6518
8. www.dnr.state.oh.us/LinkClick.aspx?link=6733&tabid=6518
9. http://www.fws.gov/northeast/wssnfh/pdfs/RAINBOW1.pdf
10. http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/regions_pdf/rainbowtrout3.pdf
11. http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/rainbow-trout/

“Rainbow Trout.” National Geographic. National Geographic Society, 1996-2013. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.
http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/rainbow-trout/

“Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Version 13. United States Department of Agrictulture: Natural Resources Conservation Service, May 2000. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.
http://www.fws.gov/northeast/wssnfh/pdfs/RAINBOW1.pdf

“Rainbow Trout.” ODNR Division of Wildlife. Ohio Department of Natural Resources. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.
www.dnr.state.oh.us/LinkClick.aspx?link=6733&tabid=6518

“Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss).” Texas Parks and Wildlife. Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.

http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/huntwild/wild/species/rbt/

“Fishing for Rainbow Trout.” New York Department of Environmental Conservation. Web. 26 Feb 2013.
http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/regions_pdf/rainbowtrout3.pdf
Current distribution of Rainbow Trout, including native habitats and domesticate populations. Photo Courtesy of http://www.fws.gov/northeast/wssnfh/pdfs/RAINBOW1.pdf

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Reptiles, Wildlife

Garter snake – Thamnophis sirtalis, Facts

December 31, 2013 traderscreek

Common garter snakes are highly variable in color pattern. — Picture taken by steve hillebrand

General: The Common garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis, is one of the most common species of snake in their native habitats across much of North America. This non-venomous, cold-blooded snake is highly adaptable, thriving in urban and suburban environments and gardens, much to the dismay of the gardeners.

Description: Common garter snakes are an abundant, cold-blooded species exhibiting high levels of variation in coloration and appearance. Dozens of subspecies that have been identified by distinct color variations; however, variation in color has been found within populations, indicating that coloration alone may not be enough to identify a subspecies1.

Common garter snakes grow throughout the duration of their lives and are, on average, 18” to 26” in length but may grow as long as 49”2. Males and females are similar in coloration but males are smaller than females with longer tails relative to their size. The head, compared to the neck and body, is wide. Scales of the Common garter snake are keeled, meaning there is an elevated ridge running the length of each scale3. Body coloration may range from black, red, brown, gray to green.

Populations living in Florida and southern Georgia generally have bluish coloration on their bodies4. The underside, chin and throat (generally similar in color to the stripes on the body) may be green, blue-gray, green, or white, occasionally with black spots. There are typically three stripes running the length of the body on scales 2 and 3 (ranging from yellow, brown, blue, orange, gray, green, or white in color,) the middle stripe running down the center of the back. These stripes may be solid or may become undefined or entirely absent. In some specimens, two rows may join to form a thick bar or may become checkered or spotted in appearance5. Some populations of Common garter snakes exhibit red or orange coloration between the scales. This coloration may extend to the tips of the scales. The top of the head is generally dark with a pair of spots that are light or almost white in color. The eyes are large, relative to the size of the head. Upper lip scales are marked by dark vertical bars and the tongue is red and tipped in black.

Common garter snakes live an average of 2 years in the wild and 6 to 10 years in captivity. One Common garter snake living in captivity survived to 20 years of age6.

Since Common garter snakes are cold blooded, they must use thermoregulation to maintain an appropriate body temperature of 28° to 32° C7. To do this, snakes bask in sunlight during the morning and as body temperatures fall during the day, snakes become less active. Despite Common garter snakes being a solitary species, they are known to gather at night to sleep in groups to avoid becoming too cold. Common garter snakes can be active throughout the year and may be seen basking atop snow on warm winter days. This particular species is active across a greater temperature range than many other species of snakes due to a greater tolerance of cold, enabling one of the shortest hibernation periods of all snake species in nearctic habitats. Common garter snakes hibernate in large numbers during the winter, from October to early April, in natural cavities (such as crayfish or mammal burrows or ant mounds,) under debris such as rocks or tree stumps, in dams, or on hillsides. Sleeping in tightly coiled groups allows snakes to maintain body temperatures. Hibernation sites are different from summer grounds (used for feeding and breeding,) and snakes have been known to travel great distances from one site to the other.
Common garter snakes use touch and smell to communicate with one another, generally for reproductive purposes. Before mating, males secrete pheromones to attract females coming out of hibernation. Snakes use their tongues to sample chemicals from the air (including these pheromones,) using a specialized organ located on the roof of the mouth to decipher these chemicals. Common garter snakes are also able to sense vibrations and have developed vision8.

Habitat: Common garter snakes inhabit a variety of moist environments, such as woodlands, marshes and meadows. They prefer maintaining close proximity to water and cover under grass or brush, opting for pond or lake edges, streams, or ditches. In the case that water is not readily available, Common garter snakes have been known to travel long distances to locate a new source.

A highly adaptable species, Common garter snakes can survive extreme conditions9. Their adaptability allows them to thrive in urban and suburban settings.

Within their native habitats, Common garter snakes fall prey to many predators, including snapping turtles, foxes, squirrels, great blue herons, hawks, larger snakes, skunks, raccoons, opossum, American crows, bullfrogs and large fish. To avoid predators, Common garter snakes may hide in grass stripes (using their strips as camouflage,) or flee to water, but when attacked, they tend to coil to appear larger, strike and bite10. When caught, Common garter snakes release an unpleasant secretion from glands located at the base of the tail.

Threats: Common garter snakes are considered a low risk species; however, certain threats exist that are detrimental to population numbers. Urbanization has lead to a loss of the Common garter snake’s native habitats. Pesticides and chemicals also damage habitats. Common garter snakes have also experienced a decrease in food supplies, due to disease and competition by invasive species. Snakes living in developed areas often fall prey to dogs, cats, automobiles or lawnmowers and face the risk of being captured for domestication.

Location: Common garter snakes reside in the nearctic region, and may be found in a variety of habitats across much of North America, including woodlands, marshes, meadows, and hillsides. Populations may be found as far south as Florida’s western coast on the Gulf of Mexico, north to British Columbia, and west to California. The Common garter snake is generally absent from arid environments like the American Southwest, although several isolated populations exist in New Mexico and northern areas of Mexico11.

Diet: Common garter snakes are low-level predators, feeding mainly on earthworms and amphibians. Their diets also include insects, frogs, toads, salamanders, snails, leeches, slugs, crayfish, fish, tadpoles, snakes, baby birds and bird eggs, small lizards, and small mammals (such as mice.) These snakes are skilled swimmers, swimming slowly and locating prey with their highly developed senses of smell and sight. They capture prey using a variety of hunting methods, including craning, peering, and ambushing12. The saliva of the Common garter snake is slightly toxic, partially immobilizing their small prey, making it easier for the snake to swallow their meal whole. The quick reflexes and sharp teeth of the Common garter snake make them a well-honed predator in their habitats.

Toads and some other amphibians emit toxic chemicals to ward off predators; however, the Common garter snake is one of the few species able to consume these animals, unaffected by the chemicals.

Reproduction: The Common garter snake is a viviparous species, meaning that it bears live young. Mating occurs in the spring, immediately after snakes emerge from hibernation dens. The males exit first, surrounding the females as they emerge, secreting pheromones that will attract them. The females select their mate and as mating begins, snakes coil together, forming a breeding ball. After mating, females return to their summer habitats to feed and locate appropriate birthing areas. The males stay near the hibernation den to try and mate again with remaining females. Some females may chose not to mate in a particular season since they have the ability to store sperm from previous mating13.

Gestation lasts for 8 to 12 weeks, as young snakes are incubated in the female’s lower abdomen. Females typically give birth to litters containing 10 to 80 young snakes that are 5” to 9” in length14. Young snakes, similar in appearance to adults, are born between late July and October and are immediately independent, responsible for finding their own food and survival. The young tend to remain in close proximity to their mothers for up to a few days despite the mother offering no care15. Common garter snakes grow quickly and reach sexual maturity in 1.5 to 2 years (males generally reaching sexual maturity first.)

Notes of Interest

Despite often being feared, Common garter snakes should be a welcomed part of any garden as they aid in controlling insect and pest populations.

Common garter snakes may be tamed with appropriate handling, resulting in their popularity as pets.

The saliva of the Common garter snake may cause an allergic reaction in individuals who have handled a snake or been bitten16.

The San Francisco garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis tetrataenia,) a subspecies of the Common garter snake, is an endangered species and in 1967 was placed on the U.S. and California Endangered Species lists.

Footnotes

http://srelherp.uga.edu/snakes/thasir.htm
http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/accounts/Thamnophis_sirtalis/
http://www.inhs.illinois.edu/animals_plants/herps/species/th_sirtali.html
http://www.arkive.org/common-garter-snake/thamnophis-sirtalis/
http://www.fcps.edu/islandcreekes/ecology/eastern_garter_snake.htm

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